Cervix

This information should not be used for self-diagnosis or in place of a qualified physician's care.

Revised Nov 2020

The basics

Guidelines for treating this cancer have been developed by the Gynecology Tumour Group.
For health professional information on treating this cancer, please see our Cancer Management Guidelines.
Cervix cancer is also called carcinoma of the cervix, cervical cancer, or cervical squamous cell carcinoma (SCC).
Pre-cancerous changes to the cervix are called dysplasia, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) or squamous intraepithelial lesion (SIL).
The cervix is part of the reproductive system. It is the narrow, lower part of the uterus that serves as a canal between the uterus and vagina. It is about 2.5cm long.
The cervix makes mucus that cleans and lubricates the vagina. During childbirth, the cervix widens to allow the baby to pass from the uterus into the vagina.

What causes it and who gets it?

Listed below are some of the known risk factors for this cancer. Not all of the risk factors below may cause this cancer, but they may be contributing factors.

Anyone who has a cervix and has ever been sexually active (touching or intercourse) is at risk of cervical cancer.
Almost all cervical cancers are caused by certain types of the Human papillomavirus (HPV).

There are more than 100 types of HPV and about 40 can infect the genital area. About 15 types of genital HPV can cause cervical cancer.
HPV is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Most adults have HPV some time in their lives and it usually goes away within 24 months without any problem.
In some people, the dysplasia (abnormal cells caused by HPV) does not go away. Over time these abnormal cells in the cervix can change into cervical cancer.

Risk factors for HPV infection:

Starting sexual activity at a young age
Multiple sexual partners
A sexual partner who has had multiple partners
Not using condoms/barrier method to reduce risk of STIs

Risk factors for HPV progressing to cervical cancer:

Weakened immunity, for example because of HIV / AIDS, or drugs taken for an organ transplant
Smoking

Cervical cancer is probably not affected by heredity (family or genetic history).
Cervical cancer can start to develop at a younger age than many cancers and affects people over a wide age range. Most people diagnosed with cervical cancer are between the ages of 30 and 60.
Statistics
^{NOTE: Available statistics do not have information about the inclusion of transgender and gender diverse participants. Unless specified, it is unknown how these statistics apply to transgender and gender diverse people. Patients are advised to speak with their primary care provider or specialists about their individual considerations and recommendations.}

Can I help to prevent it?

Routine sexual health screening is recommended for all sexually active adults.
Practice safer sex to reduce your risk of Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. This includes using a new condom/barrier method every time you have vaginal, anal or oral sex.
Vaccines are available that protect against two types of HPV that cause most cervical cancers.
The BCCDC website describes the most current recommendations for the HPV vaccine, and which individuals qualify for the publicly funded vaccination and individuals who do not.
For more information call your local public health unit or speak to your family physician. You can also find information at Immunize BC.
To reduce your risk, don’t smoke, and avoid exposure to tobacco and cigarette smoke. Even if you have been using tobacco for many years, quitting will reduce your cancer risk. Support is available to help you successfully quit. Visit BC Cancer's Prevention page on Tobacco for information and resources.

Screening for this cancer

Pre-cancerous and cancerous cells in the cervix can be found through routine physical exams that include a Pap test, the current method used for cervical cancer screening.
The Pap test detects pre-cancerous changes in the cervix and cervical cancer before symptoms appear.
Cervical cancer can be prevented from developing when abnormal cells are found and treated early through regular Pap test screening.
When abnormal cells are removed before cancer develops, the cure rate is 100 percent.
For cancer limited to the surface tissue of the cervix, the cure rate is 80 to 90 percent.

See our Screening BC website for information on:

Signs and symptoms

People with abnormal cells in the cervix and early stage cervical cancer often do not experience any symptoms.
As the cancer advances, the more common symptoms are:

Spotting: spots of blood from the vagina, other than a normal menstrual period
Bleeding after intercourse
Discharge: from the vagina, more or different than your usual

Diagnosis & staging

Diagnosis

These are tests that may be used to diagnose this type of cancer.

Pap test
Colposcopy is used to confirm the diagnosis from the Pap test

The vagina and cervix are examined with a magnifying instrument called a colposcope
The magnification allows for more accurate identification of the type and extent of the abnormal cells
Colposcopy clinics are located throughout the province

Biopsy: removing the suspicious area (lesion, or tissue) so the cells can be examined with a microscope or other tests.
Other tests may be recommended by your doctor, possibly including:

Blood tests at a lab
Chest X-ray or CT scans
Cystoscopy: viewing the bladder through a scope.
Sigmoidoscopy: viewing the lower intestine and rectum through a scope.

For more information on tests used to diagnose cancer, see our Recommended Websites, Diagnostic Tests section.

Types and stages

Types

Squamous cell cervical cancer account for about 75 percent of all cervical cancers
Adenocarcinoma cervical cancer
Other rare types (mixed adenosquamous carcinomas, small cell carcinomas)

Stages
Staging describes the extent of a cancer. The TNM classification system is used as the standard around the world. In general a lower number in each category means a better prognosis. The stage of the cancer is used to plan the treatment.

T describes the site and size of the main tumour (primary);

N describes involvement of lymph nodes;

M relates to whether the cancer has spread (presence or absence of distant metastases).

Stage 0 Pre-cancer, or cancer limited to the surface tissue of the cervix. Sometimes called CIN, Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia.

Stage I Cancer limited to the cervix, growing into the underlying tissue, divided into sub-stages by size and / or spread within the cervix area.

Stage II The cancer extends beyond the cervix, into the upper vagina, but not into the pelvic wall.

Stage III The cancer is in the pelvic wall and/or the lower third of the vagina.

Stage IV The cancer extends beyond the pelvis into the bladder and rectum, or has moved into a distant site.

Treatment

‎Cancer therapies can be highly individualized – your treatment may differ from what is described below.

Treatment by Stage

Stage 0 – pre-cancerous abnormal cells (dysplasia)

Before treatment:
Patients go for colposcopy to assess the degree and extent of any abnormal cells in the cervix.

Loop Electrosurgical Excision (LEEP)

A fine wire loop electrode is used to remove the abnormal cells.
Done in a physician's office or clinic, with a local anesthetic.
Increased but small risk of future pregnancy problems.

Laser

A high-energy beam of light is used to vaporize the abnormal cells.
Extremely precise and minimal effect on the surrounding normal tissue.
Done in a clinic, without need for local anesthestics.
Patients may experience a sensation of heat or warmth, but this passes rapidly as the procedure is completed.
More rapid healing compared to other treatment methods.
Unlikely to affect a person's fertility or ability to carry a pregnancy.
Not recommended during pregnancy.
If a biopsy (sample) specimen is required, laser may not be recommended.

Cone biopsy (conization)

A cone-shaped sample of tissue is removed from the cervix using a scalpel or laser.
Used for treatment when the precancerous cells are too far up the cervical canal to be reached with other methods.
Usually requires hospital day surgery, done under local anesthetic.
Increased but small risk of future pregnancy problems.

Hysterectomy

Surgical removal of the cervix, uterus and sometimes the fallopian tubes and ovaries.
Chosen under certain circumstances, and for people who have other gynecological conditions, for which a hysterectomy is an appropriate treatment option, and who do not want to have future pregnancies.

Cryotherapy / cryosurgery is no longer used in BC as it has a higher long term risk of later cancer than laser or LEEP.

After treatment of pre-cancers (with laser, cone biopsy, LEEP):

Patients may feel menstrual-like cramps after treatment. Aspirin, Ibuprofen or a similar mild pain medication can be used to relieve discomfort.
There is usually a bloodstained or yellow-coloured vaginal discharge for several weeks following these procedures.
To prevent infection while the cervix heals do not put anything into the vagina - no tampons, no douches. You should not have intercourse for several weeks following treatment.
Contact your doctor if you have heavy bleeding, or bleeding with clots, fever, or persistent, increasing pain.

Stage I - IIa – Treatment will be tailored to individual patients depending on biopsy results

Surgery

Cone biopsy may be used for early stage cancer if future pregnancy is desired
Simple hysterectomy
Radical hysterectomy and removal of pelvic lymph nodes

Radiotherapy

Radiotherapy may be the primary treatment or may be used with surgery.
Radiation is directed at the cancer with an external beam, or from inside the body (brachytherapy, Selectron treatment).

Stage II, III, IV

Radiotherapy is usually the primary treatment (as above).

Further surgery may be considered if disease persists after radiation.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is an option when cancer re-occurs or has spread to other sites.
Some chemotherapy drugs are used in combination with radiotherapy, as a radiation sensitiser (improves outcomes).

Follow-up after Treatment

Guidelines for follow-up after treatment are covered on our website.
You will be returned to the care of your family physician or specialist for regular followup. If you do not have a family physician, please discuss this with your BC Cancer oncologist or nurse.
Follow-up testing is based on your type of cancer and your individual circumstances.
Life after Cancer focuses on the issues that cancer survivors can face.

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